sanskrit

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Sanskrit

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Sanskrit

संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam

Pronunciation [sə̃skɹ̩t̪əm]

Spoken in Greater India

Total speakers 14,135 fluent speakers in India as of 2001^[1]

Language family

Indo-European

Indo-Iranian
- Indo-Aryan
  - Sanskrit

Writing system Devanāgarī (de facto), various Brāhmī-based scripts, and Latin alphabet

Official status

Official language in One of the 22 scheduled languages of India

Regulated by No official regulation

Language codes

ISO 639-1 sa

ISO 639-2 san

ISO 639-3 san

This page contains Indic text. Without rendering support you may see irregular vowel positioning and a lack of conjuncts. More...

Sanskrit (संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Indo-Aryan language, one of the liturgical languages of Hinduism and Buddhism,^[2] and one of the 22 official languages of India.^[3]

Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the 4th century BCE. Its position in the cultures of South and Southeast Asia is akin to that of Latin and Greek in Europe and it has significantly influenced most modern languages of Nepal and India.^[4]

The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, its oldest core dating back to as early as 1500 BCE,^[5] qualifying Rigvedic Sanskrit as one of the oldest attestation of any Indo-Iranian language, and one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European language family.^[6]

The corpus of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical and Hindu religious texts. Today, Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of hymns and mantras. Spoken Sanskrit is still in use in a few traditional institutions in India, and there are many attempts at revival.

Etymology

The Sanskrit verbal adjective saṃskṛta- may be translated as "put together, well or completely formed, refined, highly elaborated".^[7] It is derived from the root saṃ(s)kar- "to put together, compose, arrange, prepare",^[8] where saṃ- "together" (as English same) and (s)kar- "do, make". The language referred to as saṃskṛtā vāk "the cultured language" has by definition always been a "sacred" and "sophisticated" language, used for religious and learned discourse in ancient India, and contrasted with the languages spoken by the people, prākṛta- "natural, artless, normal, ordinary". It is also called dēva-bhāṣā meaning the "divine language" or the "language of devas or demigods".

History

Devimahatmya manuscript on palm-leaf, in an early Bhujimol script, Bihar or Nepal, 11th century.

Sanskrit is a member of the Indo-Iranian sub-family of the Indo-European family of languages. Its closest ancient relatives are the Iranian languages Old Persian and Avestan.^[9] Within the wider Indo-European language family, Sanskrit shares characteristic sound changes with the Satem languages (particularly the Slavic and Baltic languages), and also with Greek.^[10]

In order to explain the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages, many scholars have proposed migration hypotheses asserting that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in what is now India and Pakistan from the north-west some time during the early second millennium BCE.^[11] Evidence for such a theory includes the close relationship of the Indo-Iranian tongues with the Baltic and Slavic languages, vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Finno-Ugric languages, and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna.^[12]

The earliest attested Sanskrit texts are Hindu texts of the Rigveda, which may be located in the Greater Punjab region and adjacent Afghanistan, and dated to the mid-to-late second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive. However, scholars are confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they were ceremonial literature whose correct pronunciation was considered crucial to its religious efficacy.^[13]

From the Rigveda until the time of Pāṇini (fl. 4th century BCE) the development of the Sanskrit language may be observed in other Hindu texts: the Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, and Upanishads. During this time, the prestige of the language, its use for sacred purposes, and the importance attached to its correct enunciation all served as powerful conservative forces resisting the normal processes of linguistic change.^[14]

The oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar is Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī ("Eight-Chapter Grammar"). It is essentially a prescriptive grammar, i.e., an authority that defines (rather than describes) correct Sanskrit, although it contains descriptive parts, mostly to account for some Vedic forms the use of which had become rare in Pāṇini's time.

The term "Sanskrit" was not thought of as a specific language set apart from other languages, but rather as a particularly refined or perfected manner of speaking. Knowledge of Sanskrit was a marker of social class and educational attainment in ancient India and the language was taught mainly to members of the higher castes, through close analysis of Sanskrit grammarians such as Pāṇini. Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside the Prakrits (vernaculars), which evolved into the Middle Indic dialects, and eventually into the contemporary modern Indo-Aryan languages.

Vedic Sanskrit

Main article: Vedic Sanskrit

Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, had evolved out of the earlier "Vedic" form. Beginning of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced as early as around 1500 BCE (accepted date of Rig-Veda).^{[citation needed]} Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or "Paninian" Sanskrit as separate 'dialects'. Though they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, and grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a large collection of hymns, incantations (Samhitas), theological discussions, and religio-philosophical discussions (Brahmanas, Upanishads) which are the earliest religious texts of the Hindu religion. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, composed by many authors over centuries of oral tradition. The end of the Vedic period is marked by the composition of the Upanishads, which form the concluding part of the Vedic corpus in the traditional compilations. Around the mid 1st millennium BCE, Sanskrit began the transition from a first language to a second language of religion and learning, marking the beginning of the Classical period.

Classical Sanskrit

For nearly 2,000 years, a cultural order existed that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent, East Asia.^[15] A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of the Hindu Epics—the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or "innovations" and not because they are pre-Paninean.^[16] Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations aarsha (आर्ष), or "of the rishis", the traditional title for the ancient authors. In some contexts, there are also more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit is a Middle Indic literary language based on early Buddhist prakrit texts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying degree.^[17]

According to Tiwari (1955), there were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit: paścimottarī (Northwestern, also called Northern or Western), madhyadeśī (lit., middle country), pūrvi (Eastern) and dakṣiṇī (Southern, arose in the Classical period). The predecessors of the first three dialects are even attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest (Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa, 7.6).

Decline

There a number of sociolinguistic studies of spoken Sanskrit which strongly suggests that in this oral use it is limited and is not developing.^[18] Based on this, some suggest that Sanskrit had become 'dead', but the distinction is not clearly understood, as Pollock (2001) describes it in comparison with the "dead" language of Latin:^[19]

Both died slowly, and earliest as a vehicle of literary expression, while much longer retaining significance for learned discourse with its universalist claims. Both were subject to periodic renewals or forced rebirths, sometimes in connection with a politics of translocal aspiration… At the same time… both came to be ever more exclusively associated with narrow forms of religion and priestcraft, despite centuries of a secular aesthetic.

The decline of Sanskrit use in literary and political circles was likely due to a weakening of the political institutions that supported it, and to heightened competition with vernacular languages seeking literary-cultural dignity.^[20] There was regional variation in the forcefulness of these vernacular movements and Sanskrit declined in different ways across the subcontinent. For example, in some areas Kashmiri was used along side of Sanskrit as the language of literature after the 13th century, and Sanskrit works from the Vijayanagara Empire failed to circulate outside their place and time of composition; by contrast, works in Telugu and Kannada flourished.^[21]

But despite this presumed "death" of Sanskrit and the literary use of vernacular languages, Sanskrit continued to be used in literary cultures in India, and those who could read vernacular languages could also read Sanskrit.^[20] But the "death" meant that Sanskrit was not used to express changing forms of subjectivity and sociality embodied and conceptualized in the modern age.^[20] Instead, it was reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity in Sanskrit was restricted to religious hymns and verses.^[22]^[23]

European scholarship

See also: Sanskrit in the West and Sanskrit revival

European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by Heinrich Roth (1620–1668) and Johann Ernst Hanxleden (1681–1731), is regarded as responsible for the discovery of the Indo-European language family by Sir William Jones. This scholarship played an important role in the development of Western linguistics.^{[citation needed]}

Sir William Jones, speaking to the Asiatic Society in Calcutta (now Kolkata) on February 2, 1786, said:

The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong, indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists.

Phonology

Further information: Śikṣā

Classical Sanskrit distinguishes about 36 phonemes. There is, however, some allophony and the writing systems used for Sanskrit generally indicate this, thus distinguishing 48 sounds.

The sounds are traditionally listed in the order vowels (Ach), diphthongs (Hal), anusvara and visarga, plosives (Sparśa) and nasals (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally the liquids and fricatives, written in IAST as follows (see the tables below for details):

a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ ḷ ḹ ; e ai o au

ṃ ḥ

k kh g gh ṅ; c ch j jh ñ; ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ; t th d dh n; p ph b bh m

y r l v; ś ṣ s h

An alternate traditional ordering is that of the Shiva Sutra of Pāṇini.

Vowels

The vowels of Classical Sanskrit with their word-initial Devanagari symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant प् (/p/), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and of /p/+vowel) in IPA, equivalent in IAST and ITRANS and (approximate) equivalents in English are listed below:

Letter	प्	Pronunciation	Pronunciation with /p/	IAST equiv.	ITRANS equiv.	English equivalent (GA unless stated otherwise)
अ	प	/ɐ/ or /ə/	/pɐ/ or /pə/	a	a	short near-open central vowel or schwa: u in bunny or a in about
आ	पा	/ɑː/	/pɑː/	ā	A	long open back unrounded vowel: a in father (RP
इ	पि	/i/	/pi/	i	i	short close front unrounded vowel: e in england
ई	पी	/iː/	/piː/	ī	I	long close front unrounded vowel: ee in feet
उ	पु	/u/	/pu/	u	u	short close back rounded vowel: oo in foot
ऊ	पू	/uː/	/puː/	ū	U	long close back rounded vowel: oo in cool
ऋ	पृ	/ɻ/	/pɻ/	ṛ	R	short retroflex approximant: r in burl
ॠ	पॄ	/ɻː/	/pɻː/	ṝ	RR	long retroflex approximant r in burl
ऌ	पॢ	/ɭ/	/pɭ/	ḷ	LR	short retroflex lateral approximant (no English equivalent)
ॡ	पॣ	/ɭː/	/pɭː/	ḹ	LRR	long retroflex lateral approximant
ए	पे	/eː/	/peː/	e	e	long close-mid front unrounded vowel: a in bane (some speakers)
ऐ	पै	/əi/	/pəi/	ai	ai	a long diphthong: i in ice, i in kite (Canadian English)
ओ	पो	/oː/	/poː/	o	o	long close-mid back rounded vowel: o in bone (some speakers)
औ	पौ	/əu/	/pəu/	au	au	a long diphthong: Similar to the ou in house (Canadian English)

The long vowels are pronounced twice as long as their short counterparts. Also, there exists a third, extra-long length for most vowels, called pluti, which is used in various cases, but particularly in the vocative. The pluti is not accepted by all grammarians.

The vowels /e/ and /o/ continue as allophonic variants of Proto-Indo-Iranian /ai/, /au/ and are categorized as diphthongs by Sanskrit grammarians even though they are realized phonetically as simple long vowels. (See above).

Additional points:

There are some additional signs traditionally listed in tables of the Devanagari script:
- The diacritic ं called anusvāra, (IAST: ṃ). It is used both to indicate the nasalization of the vowel in the syllable ([◌̃] and to represent the sound of a syllabic /n/ or /m/; e.g. पं /pəŋ/.
- The diacritic ः called visarga, represents /əh/ (IAST: ḥ); e.g. पः /pəh/.
- The diacritic ँ called chandrabindu, not traditionally included in Devanagari charts for Sanskrit, is used interchangeably with the anusvāra to indicate nasalization of the vowel, primarily in Vedic notation; e.g. पँ /pə̃/.
If a lone consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a halanta/virāma diacritic below (प्).
The vowel /aː/ in Sanskrit is realized as being more central and less back than the closest English approximation, which is /ɑː/. But the grammarians have classified it as a back vowel.^[24]
The ancient Sanskrit grammarians classified the vowel system as velars, retroflexes, palatals and plosives rather than as back, central and front vowels. Hence ए and ओ are classified respectively as palato-velar (a+i) and labio-velar (a+u) vowels respectively. But the grammarians have classified them as diphthongs and in prosody, each is given two mātrās. This does not necessarily mean that they are proper diphthongs, but neither excludes the possibility that they could have been proper diphthongs at a very ancient stage (see above). These vowels are pronounced as long /eː/ and /oː/ respectively by learned Sanskrit Brahmans and priests of today. Other than the "four" diphthongs, Sanskrit usually disallows any other diphthong—vowels in succession, where they occur, are converted to semivowels according to sandhi rules.

Consonants

IAST and Devanagari notations are given, with approximate IPA values in square brackets.

Labial
Ōshtya

Labiodental
Dantōshtya

Dental
Dantya

Retroflex
Mūrdhanya

Palatal
Tālavya

Velar
Kanthya

Glottal

Stop
Sparśa

Unaspirated
Alpaprāna

p प [p]

b ब [b]

t त [t̪]

d द [d̪]

ṭ ट [ʈ]

ḍ ड [ɖ]

c च [c͡ç]

j ज [ɟ͡ʝ]

k क [k]

g ग [g]

Aspirated
Mahāprāna

ph फ [pʰ]

bh भ [bʱ]

th थ [t̪ʰ]

dh ध [d̪ʱ]

ṭh ठ Hinduism

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Not to be confused with the language Hindi.

History · Deities Denominations Mythology
Part of a series on Hinduism

Beliefs and practices Dharma · Artha Kama · Moksha Karma · Samsara Yoga · Bhakti · Maya Puja · Hindu temple
Scriptures Vedas · Upanishads Ramayana · Mahabharata Bhagavad Gita · Puranas Dharmaśāstra · others
Related topics Hinduism by country Gurus and saints Reforms · Criticism Calendar · Hindu law Ayurveda · Jyotisha Festivals · Glossary
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Hinduism is the predominant religion^[1] of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", by its adherents.^[2] Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as in Vaishnavism. Hinduism also includes yogic traditions and a wide spectrum of "daily morality" based on the notion of karma and societal norms such as Hindu marriage customs.

Among its roots is the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India, and as such Hinduism is often stated to be the "oldest living religion"^[3] or the "oldest living major tradition".^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7] Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions and has no single founder.^[8] Hinduism is the world's third largest religion after Christianity and Islam, with approximately a billion adherents, of whom approximately 905 million live in India.^[9] Other countries with large Hindu populations can be found across southern Asia.

Hinduism's vast body of scriptures are divided into Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered") texts. These scriptures discuss theology, philosophy and mythology, and provide information on the practice of dharma (religious living). Among these texts, the Vedas and the Upanishads are the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the Purāṇas and the epics Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā, a treatise from the Mahābhārata, spoken by Krishna, is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the Vedas.^[10]

Etymology

Further information: Names of India

Hindū is the Persian name for the Indus River, first encountered in the Old Persian word Hindu (həndu), corresponding to Vedic Sanskrit Sindhu, the Indus River.^[11] The Rig Veda mentions the land of the Indo-Aryans as Sapta Sindhu (the land of the seven rivers in northwestern South Asia, one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to Hapta Həndu in the Avesta (Vendidad or Videvdad 1.18)—the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism. The term was used for those who lived in the Indian subcontinent on or beyond the "Sindhu".^[12] In Arabic, the term al-Hind (the Hind) also refers to 'the land of the people of modern day India'.^[13]

The Persian term (Middle Persian Hindūk, New Persian Hindū) entered India with the Delhi Sultanate and appears in South Indian and Kashmiri texts from at least 1323 CE,^[14] and increasingly so during British rule. Since the end of the 18th century the word has been used as an umbrella term for most of the religious, spiritual, and philosophical traditions of the sub-continent, usually excluding the religions of Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism as distinct.

The term Hinduism was introduced by the English people to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.^[15]

Typology

Main article: Hindu denominations

Hinduism as we know it can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darshanas, only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga survive. The main divisions of Hinduism today are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism and Shaktism^[16]. The vast majority of present day Hindus can be categorized under one of these four groups, although there are many other partially overlapping allegiances and denominations.^{[citation needed]} Contemporary Hinduism is predominantly monotheistic, but Hindu tradition includes aspects that can be interpreted as panentheistic, pantheistic, polytheistic and even atheistic. Other notable characteristics include a belief in reincarnation and karma, as well as in personal duty, or dharma.

McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic "types" of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:^[17]

Folk Hinduism, as based on local traditions and cults of local deities at a communal level and spanning back to prehistoric times or at least prior to written Vedas.
Vedic Hinduism as still being practiced by traditionalist brahmins (for example shrautins).
Vedantic Hinduism, for example Advaita (Smartism), as based on the philosophical approach of the Upanishads.
Yogic Hinduism, especially that based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
"Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on the notion of Karma, and upon societal norms such as Hindu marriage customs.
Bhakti or devotionalism, especially as in Vaishnavism.

Definitions

Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith or a creed",^[18] but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena originating and based on the Vedic traditions.^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22]

The term Hindu in origin is a Persian word in use from the time of the Delhi Sultanate, referring to any tradition that is native to India as opposed to Islam. Hindu is used in the sense of "Indian pagan" in English from the 17th century,^[23] but the notion of Hinduism as an identifiable religious tradition qualifying as one of the world religions emerged only during the 19th century.

The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to differences in belief, and Hinduism's dogmatic openness, makes it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.^[24] Although Hinduism is a clear practical concept to the majority of its adherents,^{[citation needed]} many express a problem arriving at a definition of the term, mainly because of the wide range of traditions and ideas incorporated within it or covered by it.^[18] While sometimes referred to as a religion, Hinduism is more often defined as a religious tradition.^[1] It is therefore described as both the oldest of the world's religions, and the most diverse.^[4]^[25]^[26]^[27] Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. Some Hindu religious traditions regard particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views on this co-exist. Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, of sustenance, and of destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists. Hinduism is sometimes characterized by the belief in reincarnation (samsara), determined by the law of karma, and the idea that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death. However, other religions of the region, such as Buddhism and Jainism, also believe in karma, outside the scope of Hinduism.^[18] Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all of the living, historical world religions.^[28] Despite its complexity, Hinduism is not only one of the numerically largest faiths, but is also the oldest living major tradition on earth, with roots reaching back into prehistory.^[29]

A definition of Hinduism, given by the first Vice President of India, who was also a prominent theologian, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, states that Hinduism is not "just a faith", but in itself is related to the union of reason and intuition. Radhakrishnan explicitly states that Hinduism cannot be defined, but is only to be experienced.^[30] Similarly some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges", rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism, while others are not as central but still remain within the category. Based on this, Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.^[31]

Problems with the single definition of what is actually meant by the term 'Hinduism' are often attributed to the fact that Hinduism does not have a single or common historical founder. Hinduism, or as some say 'Hinduisms,' does not have a single system of salvation and has different goals according to each sect or denomination. The forms of Vedic religion are seen not as an alternative to Hinduism, but as its earliest form, and there is little justification for the divisions found in much western scholarly writing between Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism.^[7]^[32]

A definition of Hinduism is further complicated by the frequent use of the term "faith" as a synonym for "religion".^[18] Some academics^[33] and many practitioners refer to Hinduism using a native definition, as Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", or the "eternal way".^[2]^[34]

Beliefs

Temple carving at Hoysaleswara temple representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.

Hinduism refers to a religious mainstream which evolved organically and spread over a large territory marked by significant ethnic and cultural diversity. This mainstream evolved both by innovation from within, and by assimilation of external traditions or cults into the Hindu fold. The result is an enormous variety of religious traditions, ranging from innumerable small, unsophisticated cults to major religious movements with millions of adherents spread over the entire subcontinent. The identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separate from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the affirmation of its adherents that it is such.^[35]

Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various Yogas (paths or practices). ^[36]

Concept of God

Main article: God in Hinduism

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism,^[37] panentheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism, and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each particular tradition and philosophy. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.^[38]

Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ātman — is eternal.^[39] According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are called non-dualist.^[40] The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's ātman is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.^[41] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with Brahman and thereby reaches moksha (liberation or freedom).^[39]^[42]

Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they worship him or her thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. The ātman is dependent on God, while moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace.^[43] When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle), God is called Ishvara ("The Lord"^[44]), Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One"^[44]) or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"^[44]).^[40] However interpretations of Ishvara vary, ranging from non-belief in Ishvara by followers of Mimamsakas, to identifying Brahman and Ishvara as one, as in Advaita.^[40] In the majority of traditions of Vaishnavism he is Vishnu, God, and the text of Vaishnava scriptures identify this Being as Krishna, sometimes referred to as svayam bhagavan. There are also schools like the Samkhya which have atheistic leanings.^[45]

Devas and avatars

Krishna (left), the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu or svayam bhagavan, with his consort Radha, worshiped as Radha Krishna across a number of traditions - traditional painting from the 1700s.

The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form; devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".^[46] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in a particular form as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal.^[47]^[48] The choice is a matter of individual preference,^[49] and of regional and family traditions.^[49]

Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma to society and to guide humans to moksha. Such an incarnation is called an avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and include Rama (the protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).

Karma and samsara

Main article: Karma in Hinduism

Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed,^[50] and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".^[51] According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.^[52] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as to one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of free will and destiny.

This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states that:

“

As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes,

similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)^[53]

”

Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.^[54]^[55] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).

The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.^[56]^[57]

The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven),^[58] in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said that the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar".^[59]

Objectives of human life

Main article: Purusharthas

Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, known as the puruṣārthas: dharma "righteousness, ethikos;" artha "livelihood, wealth;" kāma "sensual pleasure;" mokṣa "liberation, freedom (from samsara)".^[60]^[61]

Yoga

Main article: Yoga

A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation.

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths that one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi or nirvana) include:

Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion)
Karma Yoga (the path of right action)
Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation)

Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom)^{[62]

Sakaldwipiya
Thu, 27 Aug 2009 05:59:13 +0100
Sakaldwipiya

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(Redirected from Maga Brahmin)
Jump to: navigation, search

Sakaldwipiya Brahmins or Bhojaka Brahmins, is a class of Hindu priests and Ayurveda teachers (acharyas),^[1] with concentrations in Western- and Northern India.
"Sakaldwipiya" is a tadbhav of Sanskrit Shakadvipiya, an -iya adjective of Shakadvipa, one of the dvipa ("continents") of Hindu mythology. Spelling variants include Shakdvipi, Shakdwipi, Shakdweepi, Shakdvipiya, Shakdwipiya, Shakdweepiya, Shakadwipi, and Sakadwipi.^[1] with concentrations in Western- and Northern India.
The Sakaldwipiyas are also known as Maga Brahmins (see origin myth
below). Also known as Maga Brahmins are the Suryadhwaja Brahmins, who
however consider themselves to be distinct from the
Sakaldwipiya/Bhojaka Brahmins.

Contents
[hide]
1 Origin myth
2 In epigraphy
3 In contemporary sources
4 Internal structures
5 Distribution
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading

Origin myth
The Sakaldwipiya Brahmin community of India identify themselves as having Iranian roots, and assert that they inherit their by-name maga from a group of priests (cf. maga) who established themselves in India as the Maga-Dias or Maga-Brahmanas.
Mahabharata describes four fold Varna system that was followed in Shakadwipa:Maga,Mashaka,Manasa,Madanga^[2].
The doctrinal basis for that assertion is Bhavishya Purana 133, which may be summarized as follows:^[3]^[4]
Krishna's son Samba was afflicted with leprosy, which was cured after he worshiped Surya, Hinduism's god of the Sun. In response, he built a temple to Surya on the banks of the Chandrabhaga river, but no competent Brahmin could be found to take up the role of priest in the temple. So Samba sought help of Gauramukha, the adviser of the yadu chief, Ugrasena.
Gauramukha responded with a suggestion that Samba go to Shakdvipa (see note on Mahabharata 6:11, below^[a])
and invite their priests to worship Surya. Further, asked Samba, "tell
me, oh Brahmin, what are the antecedents of these worshipers of the
Sun?" To which Gauramukha replied... "The first of the Brahmins amidst
the Shakhas was called 'Sujihva.' [...] He had a daughter of the name
Nikshubha, who so enamored Surya that she was impregnated by him. Thus
she gave birth to Jarashabda who was the founding father of all the Maga-Acharya. They are distinguished by the sacred girdle called the Avyanga that they wear around their waist." And so Samba called on Krishna to send him Garuda, on whose back he then flew to Shakadwipa. He collected the Maga-Acharya, brought them back to India and installed them as priests of his Surya temple.
Of the pious representatives of 18 families Samba invited to
resettle in the city of Sambapura, eight were Mandagas, and their
descendants became Shudras. The other 10 were Maga Brahmins, who married Bhoja vamsa women and so their descendants came to be known as Bhojakas.
As such, the Sakaldwipiya are one of only two^[b] Brahmin groups who are said to have originated outside India, even if about half their clan names (gotras) are the same as those of other Brahmins.
Whatever their original beliefs, by the time the Bhavishya Purana
133 was composed the Sakaldwipiyas were identified as devotees of Surya, Hinduism's deity of the Sun (cf. Hvar). Subsequently, in Vrihata samhita 60.19, Varahamihira directs that the installation of the Surya images should be made by the maga, as they were the first to worship the divinity. Other texts^{[citation needed]}
enjoin that the images of Surya should be dressed like a northerner
with the legs covered, that he should wear a coat and a girdle. The
early representations of the divinity actually follow these
injunctions, and early iconography depicts the deity in central Asian
dress, replete with boots. In time, the alien features by either
discarded or stories were inventing to interpret the others.
Nonetheless, the use of the word Mihir in India to refer to Hinduism's Surya is regarded to represent Sakaldwipiya influence, a derivation from Middle Iranian myhr, that is itself a post-4th century BCE development of another development of Avestan Mithra (< Indo-Iranian *mitra).
But in Sanskrit, Mihir is derived from the root mih (cf. MW) which is
also the root of Megha(cloud), and the chief meaning of this root is to cause rains.
Since Sun also causes rains, Mihir came to mean 'Sun'. Mitra (cognate
of Avestan Mithra ) was related to Sun, but only functionally, not
structurally. And the Shakdwipi Brahamins do in fact appear to have
been instrumental in the construction of Sun temples in different part
of the country,^[5] to include Kashmir, Kathiawad and Somnath in Gujarat, Dholpur in Rajasthan, Hissar in Jodhpur, Bharatput and Khajuraho in Madhya pradesh, Konark in Orissa and Deo, Punyark, Devkund and Umga in Bihar.
In epigraphy

The tale of the arrival of the Sakaldwipiyas appears to have been part of living tradition for many centuries. The Govindpur inscription of 1137-1138 refers to a maga family of Gaya, Bihar that was celebrated for its learning, Vedic scholarship and poetic faculty, and who descended from one of the original Samb invitees.^[6] The Brahmins of the Godda district in Uttar Pradesh likewise trace their lineage to the original invitees. The maga-vyakti of Krishnadas Mishra is an elaboration of the legend. The Bhojakas are also mentioned in the inscriptions of Maurya Ashoka and Kharavela. Kadamba dynasty (4th-6th century) copperplates found in Karnataka mention Bhojakas as administrators of Jain institutions.

In contemporary sources
The A History of Brahmin Clans states that Śākadvīpī Brahmins have a love for traditional (Sanskrit) knowledge and their Saṃskāras are like those of the Maithil Brāhamanas, although matrimonial and other customary relations with Maithil (or other Brahmins) are not in vogue.^[7]
Dorilāl Śarmā Śrotiya described them as follows: "they wear long Yajnopavita
at the age of 8 years, keep quiet while eating, like to keep beards
like sages, perform agnihotra, and charmed with mantras, and were
called maga because they read the Vedas in haphazard ways."^[7]

Internal structures
Apocryphally, the Sakaldwipiya centre was at Magadha. According to their tradition, they were there allotted 72 principalities (purs),^[8] and were identified by their purs rather than by their lineage (gotras). In time they migrated in all directions, but retained their affiliation with the original purs (as opposed to identifying themselves with their lineage, their gotras), and are strict in their practice of gotra and pur exogamy (unlike other Brahmins) and give it prime importance in arranging marriages; endogamy within one of their 74 paras (i.e. allas) is prohibited.
There are altogether 13 Śākadvīpī gotras: Kāśyapa, Garga, Pārāśara, Bhrigu/Bhargava, Kauṇḍinya, Kausala, Bharadwaj, Vasu, Suryadatta/Arkadatta, Nala, Bhavya Maṭi and Mihrāsu.
The Suryadhwaja have 5 gotras: Surya, Soral, Lakhi, Binju and Malek Jade.

Distribution
Major Sakaldwipiya centers are in Rajasthan in Western India and near Gaya in Bihar.
The term 'Bhojaka' is popular in the western states while
'Sakadvipi' and its numerous variations is typical for the north and
east. The terms 'Graham Vipra' and 'Acharya Brahmin' are common in West Bengal and Rajasthan.
One of the Sakaldwipiya groups, the 'Suryadhwaja' Brahmins, are endemic
to Northern India and is the only Shakadwipiya group classified as Kashmiri Pandits.
The Bhojakas are historically associated with several Jain temples in Gujarat and Rajasthan, where they serve as priests and attendants.^[9] Some of the Shakdwipi Brahmins of Bihar and Uttar pradesh are Ayurvedic physicians, some are priests in Rajput families, while yet others are landholders.^[10]
A community called as Daivajna who speak Konkani hailing from Konkan area are believed to have descended from Magas^[11].

Surnames (Padavi or Āspada titles) in alphabetical order, with their respective traditional areas are:

Surname
Traditional "Root" Areas

Bhatta
J&K, Bihar

Bhatt
J&K, Bihar

Upadhyay
Jharkhand, Bihar,Chattisgarh

Bhojak
Rajasthan, Maharastra

Miśra
Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh

Pāṭhaka
Jharkhand, Bihar

Mehrishi
Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan

Surname
Traditional "Root" Areas

Pāṇḍey^[7]
Jharkhand, Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh

Sharma
Rajasthan

Shukla
Uttar Pradesh,Bihar

Soral
Delhi, Rajasthan

Vadhyar/Vadhyayar
Tamil Nadu,Kerala,Karnataka

Dasguru,Indraguru
Jharkhand,Bihar

Vajpayee
Jharkhand,Uttar Pradesh

Ojha
Jharkhand,Uttar Pradesh

See also

[show]

v • d • e

Ancient India and Central Asia

Archaeology and prehistory

Proto-Indo-Iranians · Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) · Indo-Aryan migration · Swat culture · Kamboja migration · Genetics and archaeogenetics · History of the horse

Historical peoples and clans

Saka · Indo-Scythians · Yuezhi · Kambojas · Sakaldwipiya · Parsi

States

Greco-Bactrian Kingdom · Indo-Greek Kingdom · Indo-Parthian Kingdom · Kushan Empire · Kamboja Kingdom

Mythology and literature

Shakdvipa · Aryavarta · Indo-Scythians in Indian literature · Kambojas in Indian literature · Uttaramadra · Uttarakuru

[hide]

v • d • e

Topics related to Sakaldwipiya

Sakaldwipiya

History

Sakaldwipiya History • Shakdvipa

Famous Sakaldiwipya

Aryabhata • Varahamihira • Charaka • Chanakya • Vetala Bhatta

Surname

• Bhatta • Bhatt • Bhojak • Miśra • Pāṇḍey • Pāṭhaka • Sharma • Shukla

Notes

^{^} The reference to the inhabitants of Sakadwipa is however older than the Puranas, appearing first in Rigveda and subsequently in almost all veda & Mahabharata
6:11, where Sakadwipa is said to lie to the north-west (of ancient
India). The region is mentioned again in 12:14 as a region to the east
of the great Mount Meru. Consequently, the word 'Sakaldwipiya' (and variations) is presumed to reflect Saka-, the people of a region beyond the Hindukush mountains.^[12]
^{^} The other group are the Suryadhwaja Brahmins (also known as the Mehrishis), who contend that they are of Kurdish descent.

References

^ ^a ^b Śarmā 1916, p. 491.
^ "MahaBharata",Bhishmaparva,Adhyaya-11,Shlokas-35 to 38
^ Misra 1914, p. 150.
^ Chand 1964, p. 4
^ Upadhyay 1982, pp. 116-124.
^ Sharma 1981, p. 330.
^ ^a ^b ^c Śarmā 1988, p. 280.
^ Śarmā 1988, p. 279, 281.
^ Cort 2001, p. ?.
^ Mitra 1962, p. 615.
^ Mitragotri, Vitthal Raghavendra (in English). A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara. pp. 54. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=AGBuAAAAMAAJ&dq=goa+bhoja+socio&q=daivadnya+magha#search_anchor.
^ Mitra 1962, pp. 612-615.

Cort, John E. (2001), Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195132343 .
Chand, Tara (1964), Indo-Iranian relations, Tehran: Information Service of India, Embassy of India .
Mitra, Debala (1962), Foreign Elements In Indian Culture, The Cultural Heritage of India, II, Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute, pp. 612–615 .
Misra, Pt. Jwālā Prasād (1914), Jāti-Bhāṣkara, Khemaraj Shrikrishnadas .
Śarmā, Dorilāl (1998), A History of Brahmin Clans (Brāhmaṇa Vaṃshõ kā Itihāsa, in Hindi) (2nd ed.), Aligarh: Rāśtriya Brāhamana Mahāsabhā .
Sharma, Jagdish Saran (1981), Encyclopaedia Indica, II (2nd ed.), New Delhi: Chand
Śarmā, Pt.Chhote Lāl (1916), Brāhmaṇa Nirṇaya, Aligarh .
Śāstri, Harikṛṣṇa (1871), Brāhmaṇotpatti-mārtaṇḍa (in Sanskrit)
Singh, Kumar Suresh; Vyas, N. N.; Lavania, B. K.; Samanta, Dipak Kumar; Mandal, S. K. (1998), People of India, Mumbai: Popular Prakashan/Anthropological Survey of India, ISBN 8171547699 .

Upadhyay, Basudeo (1982) .

Further reading

shakdwipi.com: Community portal of Shakdwipi Brahmins
The complete reference to Brahmins. This article incorporates material from that site with due permission from Dr. Vepachedu

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakaldwipiya"
Categories: Sakaldwipiya | Brahmins | Brahmin communities | Indian castes
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Ayurveda
Thu, 27 Aug 2009 05:45:23 +0100
Ayurveda

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Ayurveda (Devanāgarī: आयुर्वेद, the 'science of life') is a system of traditional medicine native to India,^[1] and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine.^[2] In Sanskrit, the word Ayurveda^[3] consists of the words āyus, meaning 'life', and veda, meaning 'related to knowledge' or 'science'.^[1] Evolving throughout its history, Ayurveda remains an influential system of medicine in South Asia.^[4] The earliest literature of Ayurveda appeared during the Vedic period in India.^[2] The Sushruta Samhita and the Charaka Samhita were influential works on traditional medicine during this era.^[2]
Ayurvedic practitioners also claim to have identified a number of
medicinal preparations and surgical procedures for curing various
ailments and diseases.^[5]
As per Indian heritage and science, "Ayurveda" is a Upa Veda or
anexture of four main vedas (Knowledge Systems). The famous treaties of
Ayurveda are "Charaka Samhita" by Sage "Charakan", which details the
prevention and treatment of disease, and "Sushruta Samhita" of Sage
"Sushruta", which deals with Ayurvedic surgical procedures. In the
Ayurvedic system, the prevention of all types of disease has a
prominent place in treatment, including restructuring a patient's
lifestyle to align with the course of nature and the four seasons to
guarantee complete wellness.
Ayurveda is considered to be a form of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) within the western world, where several of its methods, such as the use of herbs, massage, and Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine, are applied on their own as a form of CAM treatment.^[6]
However, such alternative therapy approaches are not unique to Ayurveda
because they are also available under the systems of Unani Medicine,
Greek Medicine, and Islamic Medicine.

Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Practices
3 History
4 Current status
4.1 Within India
4.2 Outside India
4.3 Journals
4.4 Patents
4.5 Scientific evidence
4.6 Safety
5 Notes
6 External links
7 References

[edit] Overview

Traditional Indian ayurvedic spa in Goa.

Ayurveda believes in five great Elements (Devanāgarī: पंचतत्व‌; earth, water, fire, air and ether)-- all of which compose the Universe, including the human body.^[1] Chyle, blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow, and semen are believed to be the seven primary constituent elements (Devanāgarī: सप्तधातु) of the body.^[7] Ayurveda stresses a balance of three substances: wind/spirit/air, phlegm, and bile, each representing divine forces.^[7] According to Ayurveda, these three regulatory principles—Doshas (Devanāgarī: त्रिदॊश्)—vata (wind/spirit/air), pitta (bile) and kapha (phlegm)—are important.^[8] Traditional beliefs hold that humans possess a unique constellation of Doshas.^[8] In Ayurveda, the human body perceives attributes of experiences as 20 Guna (Devanāgarī: गुन, meaning qualities).^[9] Surgery and surgical instruments are employed.^[9] It is believed that building a healthy metabolic system, attaining good digestion, and proper excretion leads to vitality.^[9] Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, meditation, and massage.^[10]Thus, body, mind, and spirit/consciousness need to be addressed both individually and in unison for health to ensue.
The concept of Panchakarma (Devanāgarī: पंचकर्म‌) is believed to eliminate toxic elements from the body.^[11] Eight disciplines of Ayurveda treatment, called Ashtanga (Devanāgarī: अष्टांग), are given below:^[12]
Surgery (Shalya-chikitsa).
Treatment of diseases above the clavicle (Salakyam).
Internal medicine (Kaaya-chikitsa).
Demonic possession (Bhuta vidya):
Ayurveda believes in demonic intervention and—as a form of traditional
medicine—identifies a number of ways to counter the supposed effect of
these interferences.^[13] Bhuta vidya has been called psychiatry.^[2]
Paediatrics (Kaumarabhrtyam).
Toxicology (Agadatantram).
Prevention and building immunity (rasayanam).
Aphrodisiacs (Vajikaranam).

[edit] Practices

Several philosophers in India combined religion and traditional medicine—notable examples being that of hinduism and Ayurveda. Shown in the image is the philosopher Nagarjuna—known chiefly for his doctrine of the Madhyamika (middle path)—who wrote medical works The Hundred Prescriptions and The Precious Collection, among others.^[14]

Buddhism
may have been an influence on the development of many of Ayurveda's
central ideas—particularly its fascination with balance, known in
Buddhism as Madhyamika (Devanāgarī: माध्यमिक).^[15] Balance is emphasized; suppressing natural urges is seen to be unhealthy, and doing so may almost certainly lead to illness.^[15] To stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure is stressed upon.^[15] Ayurveda places an emphasis on moderation in food intake, sleep, sexual intercourse, and the intake of medicine.^[15]
Ayurveda incorporates an entire system of dietary recommendations.^[1] Chopra (2003)—on the subject of Ayurveda dietetics—writes:^[16]

Ayurvedic dietetics comprise a host of recommendations, ranging
from preparation and consumption of food, to healthy routines for day
and night, sexual life, and rules for ethical conduct. In contrast to
contemporary practitioners of New Age Ayurveda, older Ayurvedic authors
tended to be religiously neutral. Even Buddhist authors refrained from
trying to convert the patient to follow their particular religious ways.

For diagnosis the patient is to be questioned and all five senses are to be employed.^[17] The Charaka Samhita recommends a tenfold examination of the patient.^[17]
The qualities to be judged are: constitution, abnormality, essence,
stability, body measurements, diet suitability, psychic strength,
digestive capacity, physical fitness and age.^[17] Hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.^[7] The study of the vital pressure points or marma is of special importance.^[9]
Chopra (2003) identifies five influential criteria for diagnosis:
'origin of the disease, prodrominal (precursory) symptoms, typical
symptoms of the fully developed disease, observing the effect of
therapeutic procedures, and the pathological process.'^[17]
Hygiene—also a component of religious virtue to many Indians—is a strong belief.^[7] Hygienic living involves regular bathing, cleansing of teeth, skin care, and eye washing.^[7] Occasional anointing of the body with oil is also prescribed.^[7]

Oils—such as sesame and sunflower oil—are extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine. Studies show that both these oils contain substantial amount of linoleate in triglyceride form. Oils rich in linoleic acid may have antineoplastic properties.^[18]

Hundreds of vegetable drugs are used in Ayurvedic medicine—including cardamom and cinnamon.^[19]

Ayurveda stresses the use of vegetable drugs.^[7] Fats are used both for consumption and for external use.^[7] Hundreds of vegetable drugs are employed, including cardamom and cinnamon.^[7] Some animal products may also be used, for example milk, bones, and gallstones etc.^[7] Minerals—including sulfur, arsenic, lead, copper sulfate, gold—are also consumed as prescribed.^[7]. This practice of adding minerals to herbal medicine is known as Rasa Shastra.
In some cases alcohol is used as a narcotic for the patient undergoing an operation.^[7] The advent of Islam introduced opium as a narcotic.^[12] Both oil and tar are used to stop bleeding.^[7] Oils may be used in a number of ways including regular consumption as a part of food, anointing, smearing, head massage, and prescribed application to infected areas.^[20]
The proper function of channels—tubes that exist within the body and
transport fluids from one point to another—is seen as vital, and the
lack of healthy channels may lead to disease and insanity.^[21] Sushruta identifies that blockages of these channels may lead to rheumatism, epilepsy, paralysis, and convulsions as fluids and channels are diverted from their ideal locations.^[21] Sweating is favored as a manner in which to open up the channels and dilute the Doshas causing the blockages and harming a patient—a number of ways to take steam bathing and other steam related cures are recommended so that these toxins are released.^[21]

[edit] History

The mantra ॐ मणि पद्मे हूँ written on rocks. Chanting mantras has been a feature of Ayurveda since the Atharvaveda—a largely religious text—was compiled.^[22]

Ayurveda traces its origins to the Vedas—the Atharvaveda in particular—and is connected to religion and mythology.^[23] The Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta appeared during the 1st millennium BC.^[5] Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)— on the work of the surgeon Sushruta—write:^[5]

The main vehicle of the transmission of knowledge during that period was by oral method. The language used was Sanskrit — the vedic language
of that period (2000-500 BC). The most authentic compilation of his
teachings and work is presently available in a treatise called Sushruta Samhita.
This contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses, 700
medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57
preparations based on animal sources.

Underwood & Rhodes (2008) hold that this early phase of traditional Indian medicine identified 'fever (takman), cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, abscesses, seizures, tumours, and skin diseases (including leprosy).'^[7] Treatment of complex ailments—including angina pectoris, diabetes, hypertension, and stones—also ensued during this period.^[5]^[24] Plastic surgery, cataract surgery, puncturing to release fluids in the abdomen, extraction of foreign elements, treatment of anal fistulas, treating fractures, amputations, cesarean sections, and stitching of wounds were known.^[7] The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread.^[7]
The Charaka Samhitta text is arguably the principal classic reference.
It gives emphasis to the triune nature of each person: body care,
mental regulation, and spirtual/consciousness refinement.

Cataract in Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Cataract surgery was known to the physician Sushruta.^[25] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.^[25] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.^[25]

Other early works of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhita, attributed to Charaka.^[7] The earliest surviving excavated written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the Bower Manuscript—dated to the 4th century AD.^[26]
The Bower manuscript cites directly from Sushruta, and is of special
interest to historians due to the presence of Indian medicine and its
concepts in Central Asia.^[27] Vagbhata—the son of a senior doctor by the name of Simhagupta—^[28] also compiled his works on traditional medicine.^[7] Early Ayurveda had a school of physicians and a school of surgeons.^[2] Tradition holds that the text Agnivesh tantra—written by the legendary sage Agnivesh, a student of the mythological sage Bharadwaja—influenced the writings of Ayurveda.^[29]
The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (ca. 337 - 422 AD) wrote about the health care system of the Gupta empire
(320 - 550 AD) and—in the process—described the institutional approach
of Indian medicine which is also visible in the works of Charaka, who
mentions a clinic and how it should be equipped.^[30] Madhava (700 AD), Sarngadhara (1300 AD), and Bhavamisra (1500 AD) compiled works on Indian medicine.^[27] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were translated into the Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 AD).^[31] These Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermediaries.^[31] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.^[31]
British physicians traveled to India to see Rhinoplasty being performed by native methods.^[32] Reports on Indian Rhinoplasty were published in the Gentleman's Magazine by 1794.^[32] Joseph Constantine Carpue spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods.^[32] Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the western world by 1815.^[33] Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in the Western World.^[33]

[edit] Current status

[edit] Within India
In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act was passed by the Parliament of India, which aims to standardize qualifications for Ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.^[34] In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.^[10]
The Indian government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda
through many channels—both at the national and state levels—and helps
institutionalize traditional medicine so that it can be studied in
major towns and cities.^[35] The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) is the apex institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India.^[36] The studies conducted by this institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research.^[36]
Many clinics are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes—both in the urban and the rural areas.^[34] Mukherjee & Wahile cite World Health Organization
statistics to demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine, on
which a significant number of the world's population depends for
primary health care.^[37] In Sri Lanka the number of traditional Ayurveda practitioners is greater than trained modern medicine professionals.^[38] The manufacture and marketing of Ayurvedic medicine has been commercially successful for several pharmaceutical companies.^[34]
Old manufacturing companies such as Arya Vaidya Sala, Arya Vaidya
Pharmacy, IMIS Pharmaceuticals, Dabur, Baidyanath have maintained the
classical range, while also patenting certain own formulations, such as
Gyncocalm, Jeevani, Eosinophal, Dabur Pancharishta. Similarly, MNCs
like Hindustan Unilever Limited, in collaboration with Arya Vaidya
Pharmacy, has been promoting its chain of Ayurvedic Massage Therapy
Centres in the Brand name of [Ayush Therapy Centre],with two of the
major centers located at Kalyan and Vashi.

[edit] Outside India
Academic institutions related to traditional medicine in India have contributed to Ayurveda's international visibility.^[39] Kurup (2003) comments on the role of Gujarat Ayurved University:^[39]

The Gujarat Ayurved University has signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with nine Ayurvedic institutes functioning in Japan, Australia, the Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, and Germany to coordinate and facilitate the globalization of Ayurveda through academic collaboration. Earlier, Medical (Ayu) Institute of Russia
had signed the MoU with the government of India, in which Gujarat
Aryurved University is also one of the implementing authorities.

Ayurveda gained recognition in the Western world
as medical scholars, notably , Frank John Ninivaggi MD of Yale
University School of Medicine, researched and outlined its various
postulates in one major textbook form suitable to Western academic
science.^[40] In the United States of America, the NIH NCCAM
expends some of its $123 million budget on Ayurvedic medicine research.
In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, established
by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has
carried out research into Ayurvedic practices.^[41] Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in academic journals.^[42] The postulates and history of Ayurveda have also been outlined by foreign scholars—such as Dominik Wujastyk in the United Kingdom.^[43]
Questionable practices in research involving financial gains have
resulted in the questioning of some of the research and cases such as
the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health have involved litigations.^[44]^[45]

[edit] Journals
A variety of peer reviewed journals focus on the topic of ayurvedic medicine, including the Theoretical and Experimental Journal of Ayurveda and Siddha (TEJAS; published between 1981 and 2008 as Ancient Science of Life)^[46] the Journal of Research & Education in Indian Medicine (JREIM),^[47] AYU (published quarterly)^[48] and The International Journal for Ayurveda Research (published quarterly)^[49] None of the journals are PubMed indexed.

[edit] Patents
In December 1993, the University of Mississippi Medical Center had a patent issued to them by United States Patent and Trademark Office on the use of turmeric for healing.^[50] The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R),
on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already
aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for
centuries, making this patent a case of bio-piracy.^[51] The Government of India had become involved in promoting traditional medicine by 1997.^[52] Sharma & Bodeker report on the various government activities in relation with Ayurveda:^[52]

In India the government became involved in traditional drug
production when the Central Drug Research Institute patented two new
drugs from ancient Ayurvedic formulas. One, a mixture of black pepper, long pepper, and ginger, allows for the dosage of the antibiotic rifampicin to be halved in the treatment of tuberculosis and other mycobacterial infections. The other is a memory tonic produced from the traditional plant called brahmi. Overseas patenting of turmeric and products of the neem
tree caused controversy in India and other nations. In August the U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office canceled a U.S. patent on the wound-healing
properties of turmeric when the Indian government proved that records had existed for this use for centuries.

[edit] Scientific evidence

Chemical structure of curcumin used in Ayurvedic medicine. Shown here in its ketone form.

Research suggests that Terminalia arjuna is useful in alleviating the}