Ayurveda

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Ayurveda (Devanāgarī: आयुर्वेद, the 'science of life') is a system of traditional medicine native to India,[1] and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine.[2] In Sanskrit, the word Ayurveda[3] consists of the words āyus, meaning 'life', and veda, meaning 'related to knowledge' or 'science'.[1] Evolving throughout its history, Ayurveda remains an influential system of medicine in South Asia.[4] The earliest literature of Ayurveda appeared during the Vedic period in India.[2] The Sushruta Samhita and the Charaka Samhita were influential works on traditional medicine during this era.[2] Ayurvedic practitioners also claim to have identified a number of medicinal preparations and surgical procedures for curing various ailments and diseases.[5]

As per Indian heritage and science, "Ayurveda" is a Upa Veda or anexture of four main vedas (Knowledge Systems). The famous treaties of Ayurveda are "Charaka Samhita" by Sage "Charakan", which details the prevention and treatment of disease, and "Sushruta Samhita" of Sage "Sushruta", which deals with Ayurvedic surgical procedures. In the Ayurvedic system, the prevention of all types of disease has a prominent place in treatment, including restructuring a patient's lifestyle to align with the course of nature and the four seasons to guarantee complete wellness.

Ayurveda is considered to be a form of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) within the western world, where several of its methods, such as the use of herbs, massage, and Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine, are applied on their own as a form of CAM treatment.[6] However, such alternative therapy approaches are not unique to Ayurveda because they are also available under the systems of Unani Medicine, Greek Medicine, and Islamic Medicine.

Contents

[hide]


[edit] Overview

Traditional Indian ayurvedic spa in Goa.

Ayurveda believes in five great Elements (Devanāgarī: पंचतत्व‌; earth, water, fire, air and ether)-- all of which compose the Universe, including the human body.[1] Chyle, blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow, and semen are believed to be the seven primary constituent elements (Devanāgarī: सप्तधातु) of the body.[7] Ayurveda stresses a balance of three substances: wind/spirit/air, phlegm, and bile, each representing divine forces.[7] According to Ayurveda, these three regulatory principles—Doshas (Devanāgarī: त्रिदॊश्)—vata (wind/spirit/air), pitta (bile) and kapha (phlegm)—are important.[8] Traditional beliefs hold that humans possess a unique constellation of Doshas.[8] In Ayurveda, the human body perceives attributes of experiences as 20 Guna (Devanāgarī: गुन, meaning qualities).[9] Surgery and surgical instruments are employed.[9] It is believed that building a healthy metabolic system, attaining good digestion, and proper excretion leads to vitality.[9] Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, meditation, and massage.[10]Thus, body, mind, and spirit/consciousness need to be addressed both individually and in unison for health to ensue.

The concept of Panchakarma (Devanāgarī: पंचकर्म‌) is believed to eliminate toxic elements from the body.[11] Eight disciplines of Ayurveda treatment, called Ashtanga (Devanāgarī: अष्टांग), are given below:[12]

[edit] Practices

Several philosophers in India combined religion and traditional medicine—notable examples being that of hinduism and Ayurveda. Shown in the image is the philosopher Nagarjuna—known chiefly for his doctrine of the Madhyamika (middle path)—who wrote medical works The Hundred Prescriptions and The Precious Collection, among others.[14]

Buddhism may have been an influence on the development of many of Ayurveda's central ideas—particularly its fascination with balance, known in Buddhism as Madhyamika (Devanāgarī: माध्यमिक).[15] Balance is emphasized; suppressing natural urges is seen to be unhealthy, and doing so may almost certainly lead to illness.[15] To stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure is stressed upon.[15] Ayurveda places an emphasis on moderation in food intake, sleep, sexual intercourse, and the intake of medicine.[15]

Ayurveda incorporates an entire system of dietary recommendations.[1] Chopra (2003)—on the subject of Ayurveda dietetics—writes:[16]

Ayurvedic dietetics comprise a host of recommendations, ranging from preparation and consumption of food, to healthy routines for day and night, sexual life, and rules for ethical conduct. In contrast to contemporary practitioners of New Age Ayurveda, older Ayurvedic authors tended to be religiously neutral. Even Buddhist authors refrained from trying to convert the patient to follow their particular religious ways.

For diagnosis the patient is to be questioned and all five senses are to be employed.[17] The Charaka Samhita recommends a tenfold examination of the patient.[17] The qualities to be judged are: constitution, abnormality, essence, stability, body measurements, diet suitability, psychic strength, digestive capacity, physical fitness and age.[17] Hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.[7] The study of the vital pressure points or marma is of special importance.[9]

Chopra (2003) identifies five influential criteria for diagnosis: 'origin of the disease, prodrominal (precursory) symptoms, typical symptoms of the fully developed disease, observing the effect of therapeutic procedures, and the pathological process.'[17]

Hygiene—also a component of religious virtue to many Indians—is a strong belief.[7] Hygienic living involves regular bathing, cleansing of teeth, skin care, and eye washing.[7] Occasional anointing of the body with oil is also prescribed.[7]

Oils—such as sesame and sunflower oil—are extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine. Studies show that both these oils contain substantial amount of linoleate in triglyceride form. Oils rich in linoleic acid may have antineoplastic properties.[18]
Hundreds of vegetable drugs are used in Ayurvedic medicine—including cardamom and cinnamon.[19]

Ayurveda stresses the use of vegetable drugs.[7] Fats are used both for consumption and for external use.[7] Hundreds of vegetable drugs are employed, including cardamom and cinnamon.[7] Some animal products may also be used, for example milk, bones, and gallstones etc.[7] Minerals—including sulfur, arsenic, lead, copper sulfate, gold—are also consumed as prescribed.[7]. This practice of adding minerals to herbal medicine is known as Rasa Shastra.

In some cases alcohol is used as a narcotic for the patient undergoing an operation.[7] The advent of Islam introduced opium as a narcotic.[12] Both oil and tar are used to stop bleeding.[7] Oils may be used in a number of ways including regular consumption as a part of food, anointing, smearing, head massage, and prescribed application to infected areas.[20]

The proper function of channels—tubes that exist within the body and transport fluids from one point to another—is seen as vital, and the lack of healthy channels may lead to disease and insanity.[21] Sushruta identifies that blockages of these channels may lead to rheumatism, epilepsy, paralysis, and convulsions as fluids and channels are diverted from their ideal locations.[21] Sweating is favored as a manner in which to open up the channels and dilute the Doshas causing the blockages and harming a patient—a number of ways to take steam bathing and other steam related cures are recommended so that these toxins are released.[21]

[edit] History

The mantra ॐ मणि पद्मे हूँ written on rocks. Chanting mantras has been a feature of Ayurveda since the Atharvaveda—a largely religious text—was compiled.[22]

Ayurveda traces its origins to the Vedas—the Atharvaveda in particular—and is connected to religion and mythology.[23] The Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta appeared during the 1st millennium BC.[5] Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)— on the work of the surgeon Sushruta—write:[5]

The main vehicle of the transmission of knowledge during that period was by oral method. The language used was Sanskrit — the vedic language of that period (2000-500 BC). The most authentic compilation of his teachings and work is presently available in a treatise called Sushruta Samhita. This contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources.

Underwood & Rhodes (2008) hold that this early phase of traditional Indian medicine identified 'fever (takman), cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, abscesses, seizures, tumours, and skin diseases (including leprosy).'[7] Treatment of complex ailments—including angina pectoris, diabetes, hypertension, and stones—also ensued during this period.[5][24] Plastic surgery, cataract surgery, puncturing to release fluids in the abdomen, extraction of foreign elements, treatment of anal fistulas, treating fractures, amputations, cesarean sections, and stitching of wounds were known.[7] The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread.[7] The Charaka Samhitta text is arguably the principal classic reference. It gives emphasis to the triune nature of each person: body care, mental regulation, and spirtual/consciousness refinement.

Cataract in Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Cataract surgery was known to the physician Sushruta.[25] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.[25] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.[25]

Other early works of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhita, attributed to Charaka.[7] The earliest surviving excavated written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the Bower Manuscript—dated to the 4th century AD.[26] The Bower manuscript cites directly from Sushruta, and is of special interest to historians due to the presence of Indian medicine and its concepts in Central Asia.[27] Vagbhata—the son of a senior doctor by the name of Simhagupta—[28] also compiled his works on traditional medicine.[7] Early Ayurveda had a school of physicians and a school of surgeons.[2] Tradition holds that the text Agnivesh tantra—written by the legendary sage Agnivesh, a student of the mythological sage Bharadwaja—influenced the writings of Ayurveda.[29]

The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (ca. 337 - 422 AD) wrote about the health care system of the Gupta empire (320 - 550 AD) and—in the process—described the institutional approach of Indian medicine which is also visible in the works of Charaka, who mentions a clinic and how it should be equipped.[30] Madhava (700 AD), Sarngadhara (1300 AD), and Bhavamisra (1500 AD) compiled works on Indian medicine.[27] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were translated into the Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 AD).[31] These Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermediaries.[31] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[31]

British physicians traveled to India to see Rhinoplasty being performed by native methods.[32] Reports on Indian Rhinoplasty were published in the Gentleman's Magazine by 1794.[32] Joseph Constantine Carpue spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods.[32] Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the western world by 1815.[33] Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in the Western World.[33]

[edit] Current status

[edit] Within India

In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act was passed by the Parliament of India, which aims to standardize qualifications for Ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.[34] In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.[10] The Indian government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels—both at the national and state levels—and helps institutionalize traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.[35] The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) is the apex institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India.[36] The studies conducted by this institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research.[36]

Many clinics are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes—both in the urban and the rural areas.[34] Mukherjee & Wahile cite World Health Organization statistics to demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine, on which a significant number of the world's population depends for primary health care.[37] In Sri Lanka the number of traditional Ayurveda practitioners is greater than trained modern medicine professionals.[38] The manufacture and marketing of Ayurvedic medicine has been commercially successful for several pharmaceutical companies.[34] Old manufacturing companies such as Arya Vaidya Sala, Arya Vaidya Pharmacy, IMIS Pharmaceuticals, Dabur, Baidyanath have maintained the classical range, while also patenting certain own formulations, such as Gyncocalm, Jeevani, Eosinophal, Dabur Pancharishta. Similarly, MNCs like Hindustan Unilever Limited, in collaboration with Arya Vaidya Pharmacy, has been promoting its chain of Ayurvedic Massage Therapy Centres in the Brand name of [Ayush Therapy Centre],with two of the major centers located at Kalyan and Vashi.

[edit] Outside India

Academic institutions related to traditional medicine in India have contributed to Ayurveda's international visibility.[39] Kurup (2003) comments on the role of Gujarat Ayurved University:[39]

The Gujarat Ayurved University has signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with nine Ayurvedic institutes functioning in Japan, Australia, the Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, and Germany to coordinate and facilitate the globalization of Ayurveda through academic collaboration. Earlier, Medical (Ayu) Institute of Russia had signed the MoU with the government of India, in which Gujarat Aryurved University is also one of the implementing authorities.

Ayurveda gained recognition in the Western world as medical scholars, notably , Frank John Ninivaggi MD of Yale University School of Medicine, researched and outlined its various postulates in one major textbook form suitable to Western academic science.[40] In the United States of America, the NIH NCCAM expends some of its $123 million budget on Ayurvedic medicine research. In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, established by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices.[41] Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in academic journals.[42] The postulates and history of Ayurveda have also been outlined by foreign scholars—such as Dominik Wujastyk in the United Kingdom.[43] Questionable practices in research involving financial gains have resulted in the questioning of some of the research and cases such as the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health have involved litigations.[44][45]

[edit] Journals

A variety of peer reviewed journals focus on the topic of ayurvedic medicine, including the Theoretical and Experimental Journal of Ayurveda and Siddha (TEJAS; published between 1981 and 2008 as Ancient Science of Life)[46] the Journal of Research & Education in Indian Medicine (JREIM),[47] AYU (published quarterly)[48] and The International Journal for Ayurveda Research (published quarterly)[49] None of the journals are PubMed indexed.

[edit] Patents

In December 1993, the University of Mississippi Medical Center had a patent issued to them by United States Patent and Trademark Office on the use of turmeric for healing.[50] The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R), on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of bio-piracy.[51] The Government of India had become involved in promoting traditional medicine by 1997.[52] Sharma & Bodeker report on the various government activities in relation with Ayurveda:[52]

In India the government became involved in traditional drug production when the Central Drug Research Institute patented two new drugs from ancient Ayurvedic formulas. One, a mixture of black pepper, long pepper, and ginger, allows for the dosage of the antibiotic rifampicin to be halved in the treatment of tuberculosis and other mycobacterial infections. The other is a memory tonic produced from the traditional plant called brahmi. Overseas patenting of turmeric and products of the neem tree caused controversy in India and other nations. In August the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office canceled a U.S. patent on the wound-healing properties of turmeric when the Indian government proved that records had existed for this use for centuries.

[edit] Scientific evidence

Chemical structure of curcumin used in Ayurvedic medicine. Shown here in its ketone form.
Research suggests that Terminalia arjuna is useful in alleviating the Next post: